2026

Tretow, Ariane; Khanolainen, Daria; Hämäläinen, Jarmo; Torppa, Minna; Leppänen, Paavo H.T.

Auditory brain responses’ longitudinal interplay with print exposure and their predictive effects on reading skills were examined in a sample followed from age 4 to 10 years. Print exposure was represented by parent–child shared reading and children’s independent print exposure, whereas speech and non-speech stimuli were used to evoke brain responses (N250). We also examined the roles of familial risk (parental dyslexia) and parental education in the path models. The results suggested significant links between print exposure and brain responses to speech. A reciprocal association existed between independent print exposure and brain responses to speech, whereas unidirectional path was found from non-speech brain responses to independent print exposure. Independent print exposure in turn predicted subsequent reading fluency. Increased Parent-child shared reading at the onset of formal literacy schooling was associated with more negative brain responses to speech stimuli. Family risk for dyslexia predicted poorer reading accuracy and fluency, and the effect did not run via print exposure or brain responses. These results suggest significant longitudinal associations between brain responses to auditory stimuli, print exposure, and reading outcomes implicating evidence for the brain-environment association. The precise underlying mechanisms require further investigation.